Foreign policy comprises the strategies, principles, and actions through which a state interacts with other countries to safeguard its national interests and values. Hans J. Morgenthau defines foreign policy as the "planned pursuit of national interests through the use of diplomatic, economic, and military instruments." Joseph S. Nye, another influential scholar, views foreign policy as "the actions and decisions of a state and its leaders toward the external environment," driven by goals like security and prosperity. Shivshankar Menon describes foreign policy as "Minimaxing"—minimizing risks and maximizing benefits. In the Indian context, former diplomat Kanwal Sibal stresses the importance of continuity, with India consistently focusing on territorial integrity, sovereignty, international peace, and security. For instance, the government banned certain Chinese apps, citing security concerns, and rejected the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) due to threats to sovereignty.

India’s foreign policy also emphasizes peaceful coexistence, as demonstrated when Prime Minister Narendra Modi stated, “This is not the era of war,” amid the Russia-Ukraine conflict. India actively pursues economic partnerships, illustrated by agreements like CECA with Singapore and CEPA with South Korea, promoting trade and growth. C. Raja Mohan underscores safeguarding national interests, while Shashi Tharoor highlights India’s dedication to global peace through UN peacekeeping. Arvind Panagariya stresses economic priorities, and S. Raghavan emphasizes security through strategic partnerships. Brahma Chellany focuses on sovereignty, as shown by India’s opposition to the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor. Manoj Joshi underscores India’s growing global influence, seen in India’s G20 and SCO leadership roles. The Indian diaspora, too, remains a priority, with efforts like Operation Ganga evacuating citizens during crises. As External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar highlights, Indian foreign policy strives to address global challenges, leverage contradictions, and assert India’s role in a multipolar world.

India’s foreign policy faces numerous challenges shaped by complex regional and global dynamics. One major issue is regional security, with persistent threats from neighboring countries like Pakistan and Afghanistan, including cross-border terrorism and territorial disputes. Harsh V. Pant highlights the need for strong diplomatic efforts to counter these challenges, exemplified by events like the 2008 Mumbai attacks. Rising power dynamics, especially with China, further complicate India’s stance. C. Raja Mohan argues that India must cautiously balance its relationship with China, as seen in the Doklam and Galwan Valley standoffs. Combating terrorism also remains a priority, with Shashi Tharoor emphasizing the importance of international cooperation and intelligence-sharing, especially given insurgencies in areas like Jammu and Kashmir.

Economic challenges further strain Indian foreign policy. Raghuram Rajan discusses issues like trade barriers and global economic uncertainties, including US tariffs on steel, which impact Indian exports. Addressing non-traditional security threats, such as climate change, cyber security, and pandemics, is essential. Shivshankar Menon notes the importance of international collaboration in managing these threats, with India working closely with nations like the US and Israel on cyber security.

India’s strategic autonomy adds another layer of complexity, particularly in balancing relations with the US while maintaining ties with Russia amid the Russia-Ukraine conflict. India’s neutral stance on the war, focusing on defense and energy cooperation with Russia, has drawn scrutiny. Relations with China remain fraught due to border disputes, and India’s careful stance contrasts with US expectations. Regional tensions, such as those arising from a pro-China government in the Maldives, also impact India’s influence in the Indian Ocean. Lastly, dynamics in the Middle East, including India’s balancing act in the Israel-Palestine conflict and relations with Iran despite US sanctions, illustrate the multifaceted challenges shaping Indian foreign policy.

Modi Doctrine represents a decisive shift in India’s foreign policy, marked by a more proactive and assertive stance. Arul Louis highlights this break from the past, noting a departure from Cold War tactics and an emphasis on India’s cultural heritage rather than colonial legacies. Harsh V. Pant describes this shift as moving away from Nehruvian idealism to Realpolitik, where India adopts a realistic approach, particularly in its maritime engagement, and pursues assertive stances rather than strict non-alignment. Amitabh Mattoo identifies self-reliance, a stable South Asia, and soft power as core elements of this new doctrine, with a focus on India’s talent, tourism, trade, and technology. Moreover, multiple alignments and issue-based partnerships have replaced traditional non-alignment.

Dr. S. Jaishankar adds that Modi’s approach includes managing great power relations, expanding India’s influence, and using unpredictability in negotiations. Under this framework, India has also shown a willingness to use military power when necessary, as demonstrated by the cross-border strikes in 2019, reflecting a more assertive approach to terrorism. Economic diplomacy has also become central, with business and investment occupying key roles in diplomacy.

However, some scholars critique this doctrine. Happymon Jacob points to issues like bureaucratic ad-hocism and short-term tactics over a grand strategic vision. P. Stobdan observes an overly security-focused approach, while M.K. Narayanan and Manoj Joshi call for more coherence and transformative policies.

Examples of the Modi Doctrine’s implementation include strengthened US-India defense ties, India’s increased role in the Indo-Pacific, and a normalized relationship with Israel. In the G20, Modi has advocated for the Global South and emphasized strategic autonomy, balancing relations with major powers like the US and China. Scholars like Dhruva Jaishankar and Zehra Kazmi underscore that this policy departs from traditional non-alignment, positioning India as a more proactive global leader.

India's foreign policy is shaped by a complex interplay of geographical, historical, economic, regional, cultural, and social determinants. Geography plays a critical role, with India’s central position in Asia and dominance over the Indian Ocean offering strategic advantages but also challenges, like terrorism and piracy. As Arul Louis notes, recent initiatives under the Modi Doctrine, such as IORA and SAGAR, reflect a shift from a continental to a maritime focus. Vajpayee emphasized that while India can change its history, it cannot change its geography.

Historical and cultural influences are also profound. India’s foreign policy reflects a blend of Kautilyan Realpolitik and Gandhian pacifism. The legacy of colonialism has ingrained principles of non-alignment and anti-colonialism, while Nehru’s belief that foreign policy emerges from traditions continues to shape India’s approach. Economically, India’s liberalization has fostered engagement with trade blocs like ASEAN and energy deals with nations such as Russia and the U.S. This economic integration reflects a prioritization of development and energy security.

Regional dynamics add another layer. India must balance relations with neighbors like Pakistan and China while maintaining interests in the Middle East for energy security. Cultural and social factors, like shared ethnicities, also impact relations. For example, cultural exchange programs with Nepal and Sri Lanka aim to foster mutual understanding. However, ethnic conflicts, often exacerbated by colonial partitions, can strain ties, as seen in India’s interactions with Pakistan and Nepal’s Madhesi issue.

Domestically, India’s diverse social structure also influences foreign policy. Conflicts stemming from ethnic divisions, like those involving Tamil issues in Sri Lanka, shape India's regional engagements. Lastly, para-diplomacy allows sub-national actors, such as Tamil Nadu and Gujarat, to engage internationally, particularly in investment and trade. This emerging trend underscores the importance of balancing regional agendas with national coherence in India’s foreign policy.