South Asia is a region marked by immense diversity and complex political dynamics. Comprising eight countries—India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Maldives, and Afghanistan—South Asia’s strategic location, large population, and resource abundance enhance its geopolitical importance. Dr. Ayesha Jalal highlights South Asia’s positioning between global powers like China and the Middle East, making it a vital region for economic and political interests while also facing challenges in regional cooperation. The colonial legacy significantly shaped the political landscape; according to Dr. Partha Chatterjee, British administrative and legal structures have influenced post-independence governance, impacting political institutions and regional identity in positive and negative ways.

The political systems in South Asia vary widely. India, the world’s largest democracy, coexists with countries like Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri Lanka that have democratic systems, while Pakistan and Maldives have histories of military rule. Afghanistan faces ongoing instability, a challenge Dr. Atul Kohli notes affects democratic governance in some nations. South Asia’s ethnic and religious diversity is another defining feature. Dr. Ashutosh Varshney describes this diversity as both enriching and potentially divisive, often driving identity-based politics and tensions.

Security remains a major concern, with challenges like territorial disputes (e.g., India-Pakistan over Kashmir), terrorism (e.g., the Taliban in Afghanistan), and nuclear proliferation between India and Pakistan. Although regional cooperation through the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) holds promise, Dr. Sumit Ganguly observes that bilateral conflicts hinder its effectiveness. Finally, regional power dynamics are strongly influenced by India’s dominant role, with growing involvement from Pakistan and China adding layers to South Asia’s geopolitical complexity, as Dr. C. Raja Mohan points out.

South Asia has struggled to emerge as a cohesive region, partly due to the artificial divisions created following British colonial rule. Dr. Amitav Acharya notes that the colonial departure disrupted long-standing social, cultural, and economic ties, leading to various boundary and ethnic conflicts. While British rule initially promoted regional integration through administrative unity, independence led to the establishment of borders without regard for natural boundaries, a situation Dr. Sujata Bose argues stemmed from colonial divide-and-rule tactics that fostered animosity and contentious borders.

Political and economic impediments have also hindered South Asian unity. Issues like “Indo-phobia,” strategic differences, and China's growing involvement exacerbate mistrust and historical grievances, according to Dr. C. Raja Mohan. Economic disparities further complicate cohesion, as Dr. Amartya Sen points out; limited intra-regional trade and competition for international resources detract from opportunities for solidarity. Diverse political systems also challenge cooperation, with Dr. Subrata K. Mitra highlighting the region’s varying governance styles as barriers to consensus.

Security concerns play a significant role, with some nations perceiving India’s power as a threat and turning to external powers for balance, as Stephen P. Cohen observes. This dependency on outside support fosters regional division. External powers, particularly during the Cold War and now with China's influence, have also shaped the region’s dynamics. Harsh V. Pant emphasizes how such interventions increase complexity, impeding efforts for South Asia to unify and cooperate effectively.

India’s engagement with South Asia has evolved across different phases, adapting to changing regional dynamics. Initially, India adopted a bilateral approach, engaging individually with neighboring countries due to differing sizes, resources, and historical conflicts. Guided by a realist paradigm, India aimed to maintain dominance and restrict external influence, which created mistrust among its neighbors. As Stephen P. Cohen highlights, this led South Asian countries to seek external alliances to counterbalance India, fueling further regional fragmentation. Harsh V. Pant adds that external powers like China have complicated regional dynamics, impacting India’s efforts for cohesive cooperation.

In the 1990s, India shifted towards a more constructive approach under the Gujral Doctrine, emphasizing accommodation and conflict resolution. The doctrine promoted the principle of social constructivism, where India adopted a less dominant posture to foster regional stability. This approach enabled progress in longstanding disputes, such as the land boundary agreement with Bangladesh and granting Pakistan Most Favored Nation (MFN) status.

Currently, India’s “Neighbourhood First” policy focuses on deeper engagement, promoting connectivity, economic cooperation, and regional stability. It extends to the “Extended Neighbourhood,” enhancing ties with countries in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia. India’s “Act East” policy complements this, strengthening ties with East Asian nations. Together, these policies reflect India’s aspiration for regional leadership through a cooperative, multilateral approach, addressing both security and development challenges to foster prosperity in South Asia.

Ethnic conflicts in South Asia are driven by a complex interplay of religious, ethnic, economic, and political factors, with far-reaching implications on regional stability and international relations. Religious differences, such as those in Kashmir, highlight tensions between Hindu and Muslim communities, fueling a prolonged territorial dispute between India and Pakistan. Dr. Ayesha Jalal has argued that such conflicts are not only religious but are intertwined with historical grievances and sovereignty issues. Similarly, ethnic diversity has led to conflicts like the Assam unrest, which pits Assamese locals against Bengali-speaking immigrants, intensifying regional discord and impacting migration policies. Economic disparities further exacerbate ethnic tensions; the Maoist insurgency in India, for instance, arises from stark divides between the rural poor and the urban elite, often intensifying calls for socio-economic justice.

In Sri Lanka, the Tamil-Sinhalese conflict stems from demands for Tamil autonomy and rights, with Dr. Jayadeva Uyangoda noting that political marginalization of Tamils underpinned the decades-long civil war. In Pakistan, the Baluchistan insurgency reflects grievances around political neglect and economic exclusion. Here, Dr. Aasim Sajjad Akhtar highlights that unequal resource distribution and human rights issues contribute to unrest. Myanmar’s Rohingya crisis illustrates the role of ethnic and religious discrimination against Muslim minorities in a predominantly Buddhist nation, with far-reaching refugee impacts in Bangladesh and beyond.

These conflicts strain resources and national security as illegal migration increases, pushing host countries like Bangladesh and India to manage economic burdens and heightened security risks. This situation also necessitates stringent border controls and fosters diplomatic tensions, as neighboring countries often hold divergent policies. Illegal migration also spurs cross-border crime, such as human trafficking, which requires cooperation but often encounters mistrust. Consequently, regional alliances are strained, and ethnic conflicts continue to complicate South Asia’s path toward unity and collaboration.

Cross-border migration in South Asia presents significant challenges, encompassing security threats, ethnic conflicts, and humanitarian crises. The region faces issues such as illegal immigration, terrorism, and trafficking of drugs and arms. Former Foreign Secretary Muchkund Dubey highlighted India’s security concerns from neighboring Myanmar and Bangladesh, citing illegal migration, ethnic conflicts, and terrorism as key issues. Bangladesh and Myanmar, both with relatively short histories as nation-states, grapple with internal ethnic conflicts that often spill across borders, worsening security dilemmas.

The India-Bangladesh border has seen large-scale migration, particularly during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War when approximately 10 million refugees entered India. Persistent illegal migration from Bangladesh, especially into Assam, triggered the Assam Agitation (1979-1985), culminating in the Assam Accord, which aimed to control migration. Scholars like Namrata Goswami and former Ambassador Veena Sikri have proposed work permits and regulated entry to address migration effectively. Pushpita Das of IDSA notes India’s steps to manage migration, including deploying additional BSF troops and fencing around 3,000 kilometers of the border.

Myanmar’s border with India similarly faces issues, particularly with refugees entering states like Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram, often due to ethnic conflicts and the persecution of groups like the Rohingyas. Rohingya migration remains a pressing concern; as Pinak Ranjan Chakravarty states, they are "the world's most unwanted people," with Myanmar unwilling to take them back and Bangladesh bearing the brunt.

A comprehensive framework balancing national security with humane treatment is essential, ensuring that refugees and migrants live and work under secure conditions across South Asia.